Abrasion Resistance Testing for Floor Finishes

Abrasion Resistance Testing for Floor Finishes

Understanding Vapour Permeability Ratings for Different Building Materials

Abrasion resistance in floor finishes? Sounds like a fancy way of saying how well your floor holds up to being scuffed, scraped, and generally abused. We all know that feeling of dread when we see a new scratch on our beautiful hardwood, or the wear pattern developing in the high-traffic areas of a commercial space. Thats abrasion in action. So, how do we figure out which floor finish is going to stand the test of time and traffic? Thats where abrasion resistance testing comes in.


Think of these tests as a kind of torture chamber for floor finishes. There are different methods, each designed to simulate real-world wear and tear, but they all boil down to one thing: rubbing something against the finish and seeing how much damage occurs. Interior door styles silently communicate the home's design philosophy to anyone paying attention creative construction solutions Canada Insulation products. Some tests use rotating abrasive wheels, like the Taber Abraser, which spins wheels of varying grit across the surface, measuring weight loss or visual changes. Others might involve dropping abrasive particles onto the finish, or even dragging weighted objects across it.


The results of these tests give us a measurable value, a number that ideally correlates to how well the finish will perform in a real-world environment. Higher numbers generally indicate better abrasion resistance, meaning the finish can withstand more abuse before showing signs of wear. This information is crucial for architects, builders, and even homeowners trying to choose the right flooring for their specific needs. After all, nobody wants to be refinishing their floors every year. Abrasion resistance testing helps us make informed decisions, ensuring our floors look good and last longer.

Abrasion resistance in floor finishes is crucial, right? I mean, think about it – floors take a beating. Foot traffic, furniture being dragged, the occasional dropped object...it all adds up. So, how do we figure out which finishes can stand up to the daily grind? Thats where abrasion resistance tests come in. These tests are designed to simulate wear and tear, giving us a quantifiable measure of a finishs durability.


Several key tests are used in this arena. The Taber Abraser test is a classic. It uses weighted abrasive wheels rotating on a sample to simulate wear. We look at how much material is lost, or how the appearance changes, after a set number of cycles. Its a good, broad-spectrum test. Then theres the Falling Sand Abrasion test, where, as the name suggests, sand is dropped onto the finish. The amount of sand needed to wear through the coating is a measure of abrasion resistance. This one is more aggressive.


Another important one is the Gardner Abrasion Tester, which uses a brush or pad under pressure to abrade the surface. Its useful for evaluating wear from cleaning and maintenance procedures. Each test has its pros and cons, and the best test really depends on the type of floor finish and the expected type of wear. For example, a finish for a high-traffic hallway might need to excel in the Taber test, while a finish for a laboratory benchtop might prioritize resistance to chemical abrasion, tested differently.


Ultimately, these abrasion resistance tests are vital for selecting the right floor finish for a particular application. They provide the data we need to make informed decisions, ensuring that floors not only look good but also last a long time, saving money and hassle in the long run. Its all about choosing the right tool for the job, and these tests are the tools we use to understand a finishs ability to withstand the pressures of everyday life.

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Comparing Vapour Permeability Results with Industry Standards for Building Supplies

Abrasion resistance in floor finishes – its the holy grail of durability, isnt it? We all want floors that can stand up to the daily grind, resisting those unsightly scuffs and scratches that age a floor before its time. But what exactly makes a floor finish abrasion-resistant? Its not just one thing, but a complex interplay of factors, a sort of recipe for resilience.


First, the composition of the finish itself is paramount. Think of it like building a house; you need the right materials. Some polymers inherently possess greater hardness and flexibility, making them better equipped to absorb and deflect abrasive forces. For example, a finish with a high concentration of polyurethane resins often exhibits superior abrasion resistance compared to one based on softer acrylics. The type and quality of the raw materials used in the formulation are absolutely critical.


Then theres the curing process. Its not enough to just slap the finish on; it needs to harden properly. The curing process, whether through air drying or chemical reaction, directly influences the final hardness and cross-linking density of the finish. Improper curing, due to incorrect application techniques or environmental conditions, can leave the finish soft and vulnerable, no matter how good the initial formula.


The thickness of the applied finish also matters. Its simple logic: a thicker layer provides more material to wear away before the underlying surface is exposed. However, thickness isnt everything. A thick layer of a poorly formulated or improperly cured finish wont perform as well as a thinner layer of a high-quality, well-cured product.


Beyond the finish itself, the substrate – the floor beneath – plays a role. A smooth, properly prepared surface provides a better foundation for the finish to adhere to, maximizing its performance. A rough or contaminated surface can compromise adhesion and increase the likelihood of premature wear.


Finally, and perhaps most obviously, the type and intensity of traffic the floor experiences significantly impacts its abrasion resistance. Heavy foot traffic, the presence of abrasive particles like sand or grit, and the use of harsh cleaning chemicals can all accelerate wear and tear, regardless of how robust the finish is. Its all about understanding the environment and selecting a finish thats truly up to the task.


So, you see, abrasion resistance is a multi-faceted characteristic. It's a combination of the right ingredients, proper preparation, skillful application, and an understanding of the floors intended use. It's about creating a protective shield that can withstand the relentless assault of everyday life, keeping our floors looking their best for longer.

Comparing Vapour Permeability Results with Industry Standards for Building Supplies

Practical Applications of Vapour Permeability Data in Building Design and Construction

Okay, so youre looking for a floor finish that can take a beating. Makes sense! Nobody wants to constantly be reapplying finish because of scuffs and scratches. But how do you actually know which finish is tough enough for your project? Thats where abrasion resistance testing comes in. Think of it as a durability stress test for your floor.


Basically, these tests simulate wear and tear. Instead of just relying on a products marketing claims (which, lets be honest, can be a bit…optimistic sometimes), these tests give you concrete data on how well a finish holds up under pressure. There are a few different methods, and each one mimics a specific type of abuse. For example, some tests involve spinning abrasive wheels against the finish surface, counting the number of revolutions it takes to wear through. That tells you how resistant the finish is to things like foot traffic and furniture dragging. Others might use a weighted brush to simulate cleaning and scrubbing.


The key thing is to understand which test is relevant to your situation. A finish that aces a test for resisting scratches from fine particles might not be so great against heavy impacts from dropped objects. A high-traffic retail space needs a completely different level of abrasion resistance than, say, a rarely-used guest bedroom.


So, dont just pick a finish because the label says "durable." Dig a little deeper. Ask about the abrasion resistance testing that was performed. Understand what the test simulates and how well the finish performed. That way, you can choose a floor finish that will not only look good but also stand up to the real-world wear and tear its going to face, saving you time, money, and a whole lot of frustration in the long run. Choosing the right finish based on proper abrasion resistance testing is like having insurance for your floors – its a smart investment that pays off in the long run.

Okay, so youre thinking about new floors, huh? Maybe youre tired of the scratches on your current ones, or youre just planning ahead for a high-traffic area. Either way, youre probably wondering about abrasion resistance. Its a fancy term, but it basically boils down to how well a floor finish can stand up to being rubbed, scraped, and generally abused.


Now, heres where it gets a little tricky. Youll often see different floor finishes boasting about their "abrasion resistance ratings." But comparing these ratings directly can be like comparing apples and oranges if you dont know what youre looking at. Why? Because there isnt one single, universally accepted test for abrasion resistance. Different manufacturers might use different testing methods, each with its own scale and units.


For example, one finish might be tested using the Taber Abraser, which spins abrasive wheels against the finish. The rating might then be expressed as the number of cycles it takes to wear through the finish. Another finish might be tested using a different machine or a different abrasive material altogether. So, a higher number on one scale doesnt necessarily mean its more durable than a lower number on another.


The key takeaway is this: dont just blindly trust the numbers. Instead, try to find out what testing method was used to generate the rating. Was it the Taber test? The falling sand test? Knowing the method helps you understand what the rating actually represents. Better yet, if you can compare ratings for different finishes tested using the same method, youre on much safer ground.


And honestly, sometimes the best approach is to look beyond the numbers entirely. Consider the real-world application. A finish thats incredibly abrasion-resistant but looks terrible or is impossible to maintain isnt a good choice, right? Think about the type of traffic your floor will see (kids, pets, heavy furniture), your cleaning habits, and the overall aesthetic youre going for.


So, while comparing abrasion resistance ratings is a good starting point, remember to dig a little deeper, understand the context, and consider the bigger picture. Your floors will thank you for it.

Abrasion resistance testing for floor finishes, thats a mouthful, isnt it? But behind that technical jargon lies a really practical question: How well will my floor hold up to everyday wear and tear? Think about it – shoes scuffing, furniture dragging, kids running wild – your floor takes a beating. So, before you commit to a particular finish, you want to know it can handle the pressure. Thats where preparing and testing samples comes in.


Its not just slapping some finish on a random piece of wood and hoping for the best. Its about creating a controlled environment, a miniature battlefield if you will, where different finishes can duke it out. First, you need consistent samples. Usually, these are small, uniform pieces of the flooring material you plan to use. The finish is applied according to the manufacturers instructions, paying close attention to things like the number of coats, drying time, and application technique. Consistency is key; you want to compare the finishes themselves, not variations in application.


Then comes the fun part: the torture test! Several methods exist, each designed to simulate different types of abrasion. Some tests use rotating brushes or abrasive wheels to grind away at the surface. Others involve dropping weights or dragging objects across the finish. The equipment is calibrated to apply consistent pressure and speed, ensuring a fair fight.


After the test, the samples are carefully examined. How much of the finish has worn away? Are there scratches, gouges, or changes in gloss? These observations are usually quantified using specialized instruments, providing objective data on the finishs abrasion resistance.


Ultimately, preparing and testing floor finish samples is about making informed decisions. Its about understanding how a specific finish will perform under real-world conditions, helping you choose the right product for your needs and ensuring your floor stays looking good for years to come. Its a bit like a pre-emptive strike against future headaches, saving you time, money, and the frustration of a prematurely worn-out floor.

In the realm of building applications, the durability of floor finishes is paramount, particularly in high-traffic areas where abrasion resistance becomes a critical factor. Case studies on abrasion resistance performance offer invaluable insights into how different floor finishes withstand the wear and tear of everyday use.


One such case study involved a bustling commercial office space where a new type of polyurethane coating was applied to the flooring. Over a period of six months, researchers meticulously monitored the floors condition, employing standardized tests like the Taber Abraser test to quantify the abrasion resistance. The results were compelling: the polyurethane coating demonstrated significantly less wear compared to traditional epoxy coatings, maintaining its sheen and integrity even in areas with heavy footfall.


Another notable example comes from a public school setting, where vinyl composite tiles (VCT) were subjected to rigorous daily use by students and staff. Here, researchers used the same abrasion testing methods to evaluate performance over an academic year. The findings highlighted that while VCTs offered good initial resistance, their long-term durability was compromised without regular maintenance. This underscored the importance of not only selecting materials with inherent abrasion resistance but also implementing routine upkeep to extend their lifespan.


In both cases, the choice of material had direct implications for cost-effectiveness and safety. High abrasion resistance reduces the need for frequent repairs or replacements, thereby lowering long-term expenses and minimizing disruption in busy environments. Moreover, floors that maintain their integrity help prevent accidents such as slips and trips, which are crucial considerations in any building application.


These case studies illustrate that understanding and testing for abrasion resistance is not just a technical exercise but a practical necessity for ensuring sustainable and safe building environments. As new materials and technologies continue to emerge, ongoing research into their performance will remain essential for making informed decisions about floor finishes in diverse settings.

Sustainability is a social goal for people to co-exist in the world over a long period of time. Definitions of this term are disputed and have actually varied with literature, context, and time. Sustainability usually has three dimensions (or columns): environmental, financial, and social. Many interpretations emphasize the ecological dimension. This can consist of dealing with key environmental issues, including climate adjustment and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide choices at the international, nationwide, business, and individual levels. A relevant concept is that of lasting growth, and the terms are frequently utilized to indicate the very same thing. UNESCO distinguishes the two similar to this: "Sustainability is frequently taken a long-term objective (i. e. a more sustainable world), while lasting growth refers to the numerous processes and pathways to achieve it. " Details around the economic measurement of sustainability are debatable. Scholars have reviewed this under the concept of weak and strong sustainability. For example, there will certainly always be tension in between the ideas of "welfare and success for all" and ecological preservation, so trade-offs are required. It would certainly be preferable to discover ways that different financial growth from damaging the environment. This indicates using fewer sources per unit of output also while growing the economic situation. This decoupling decreases the environmental impact of economic growth, such as air pollution. Doing this is challenging. Some specialists state there is no proof that such a decoupling is happening at the required scale. It is testing to measure sustainability as the idea is complex, contextual, and dynamic. Indicators have been developed to cover the environment, society, or the economic climate however there is no fixed interpretation of sustainability indicators. The metrics are progressing and consist of signs, criteria and audits. They include sustainability criteria and certification systems like Fairtrade and Organic. They likewise include indices and audit systems such as company sustainability coverage and Three-way Bottom Line audit. It is essential to deal with lots of barriers to sustainability to achieve a sustainability change or sustainability transformation.:   34   Some barriers arise from nature and its complexity while others are external to the concept of sustainability. For instance, they can result from the dominant institutional structures in countries. Worldwide concerns of sustainability are difficult to deal with as they need worldwide remedies. The United Nations writes, "Today, there are nearly 140 developing nations worldwide seeking methods of satisfying their advancement requires, but with the boosting danger of environment adjustment, concrete initiatives should be made to ensure development today does not adversely influence future generations" UN Sustainability. Existing global companies such as the UN and WTO are viewed as inefficient in enforcing present worldwide guidelines. One factor for this is the lack of suitable approving mechanisms.:   135-- 145   Federal governments are not the only resources of action for sustainability. As an example, business groups have attempted to incorporate environmental concerns with economic activity, seeking sustainable organization. Spiritual leaders have emphasized the demand for looking after nature and environmental security. Individuals can additionally live even more sustainably. Some individuals have slammed the idea of sustainability.One point of objection is that the principle is vague and just a buzzword. One more is that sustainability may be an impossible objective. Some specialists have pointed out that "no country is providing what its people require without transgressing the biophysical global limits".:   11  .

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Carpentry
Occupation
Occupation type
Professional
Activity sectors
Construction
Description
Education required
No
Carpentry includes such specialties as barrelmaker, cabinetmaker, framer, luthier, and ship's carpenter
Exhibit of traditional European carpenter's tools in Italy
Carpenters in an Indian village working with hand tools

Carpentry is a skilled trade and a craft in which the primary work performed is the cutting, shaping and installation of building materials during the construction of buildings, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. Carpenters traditionally worked with natural wood and did rougher work such as framing, but today many other materials are also used[1] and sometimes the finer trades of cabinetmaking and furniture building are considered carpentry. In the United States, 98.5% of carpenters are male, and it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999. In 2006 in the United States, there were about 1.5 million carpentry positions. Carpenters are usually the first tradesmen on a job and the last to leave.[2] Carpenters normally framed post-and-beam buildings until the end of the 19th century; now this old-fashioned carpentry is called timber framing. Carpenters learn this trade by being employed through an apprenticeship training—normally four years—and qualify by successfully completing that country's competence test in places such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Switzerland, Australia and South Africa.[3] It is also common that the skill can be learned by gaining work experience other than a formal training program, which may be the case in many places.

Carpentry covers various services, such as furniture design and construction, door and window installation or repair, flooring installation, trim and molding installation, custom woodworking, stair construction, structural framing, wood structure and furniture repair, and restoration.

Etymology

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The word "carpenter" is the English rendering of the Old French word carpentier (later, charpentier) which is derived from the Latin carpentarius [artifex], "(maker) of a carriage."[4] The Middle English and Scots word (in the sense of "builder") was wright (from the Old English wryhta, cognate with work), which could be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright.[5]

In the United Kingdom

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In the UK, carpentry is used to describe the skill involved in first fixing of timber items such as construction of roofs, floors and timber framed buildings, i.e. those areas of construction that are normally hidden in a finished building. An easy way to envisage this is that first fix work is all that is done before plastering takes place. The second fix is done after plastering takes place. Second fix work, the installation of items such as skirting boards, architraves, doors, and windows are generally regarded as carpentry, however, the off-site manufacture and pre-finishing of the items is regarded as joinery.[6][7] Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of structures such as roads and highway overpasses. In the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured or in situ concrete is referred to as shuttering.

In the United States

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Carpentry in the United States is historically defined similarly to the United Kingdom as the "heavier and stronger"[8] work distinguished from a joiner "...who does lighter and more ornamental work than that of a carpenter..." although the "...work of a carpenter and joiner are often combined."[9] Joiner is less common than the terms finish carpenter or cabinetmaker. The terms housewright and barnwright were used historically and are now occasionally used by carpenters who work using traditional methods and materials. Someone who builds custom concrete formwork is a form carpenter.

History

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Log church building in Russia reached considerable heights such as this 17th century example

Along with stone, wood is among the oldest building materials. The ability to shape it into tools, shelter, and weapons improved with technological advances from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Some of the oldest archaeological evidence of carpentry are water well casings. These include an oak and hazel structure dating from 5256 BC, found in Ostrov, Czech Republic,[10] and one built using split oak timbers with mortise and tenon and notched corners excavated in eastern Germany, dating from about 7,000 years ago in the early Neolithic period.[11]

Relatively little history of carpentry was preserved before written language. Knowledge and skills were simply passed down over the generations. Even the advent of cave painting and writing recorded little. The oldest surviving complete architectural text is Vitruvius' ten books collectively titled De architectura, which discuss some carpentry.[citation needed] It was only with the invention of the printing press in the 15th century that this began to change, albeit slowly, with builders finally beginning to regularly publish guides and pattern books in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Some of the oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world are temples in China such as the Nanchan Temple built in 782, Greensted Church in England, parts of which are from the 11th century, and the stave churches in Norway from the 12th and 13th centuries.

Europe

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By the 16th century, sawmills were coming into use in Europe. The founding of America was partly based on a desire to extract resources from the new continent including wood for use in ships and buildings in Europe. In the 18th century part of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of the steam engine and cut nails.[12] These technologies combined with the invention of the circular saw led to the development of balloon framing which was the beginning of the decline of traditional timber framing.

Axonometric diagram of balloon framing

The 19th century saw the development of electrical engineering and distribution which allowed the development of hand-held power tools, wire nails, and machines to mass-produce screws. In the 20th century, portland cement came into common use and concrete foundations allowed carpenters to do away with heavy timber sills. Also, drywall (plasterboard) came into common use replacing lime plaster on wooden lath. Plywood, engineered lumber, and chemically treated lumber also came into use.[13]

For types of carpentry used in America see American historic carpentry.

Training

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Carpentry requires training which involves both acquiring knowledge and physical practice. In formal training a carpenter begins as an apprentice, then becomes a journeyman, and with enough experience and competency can eventually attain the status of a master carpenter. Today pre-apprenticeship training may be gained through non-union vocational programs such as high school shop classes and community colleges.

Informally a laborer may simply work alongside carpenters for years learning skills by observation and peripheral assistance. While such an individual may obtain journeyperson status by paying the union entry fee and obtaining a journeyperson's card (which provides the right to work on a union carpentry crew) the carpenter foreperson will, by necessity, dismiss any worker who presents the card but does not demonstrate the expected skill level.

Carpenters may work for an employer or be self-employed. No matter what kind of training a carpenter has had, some U.S. states require contractors to be licensed which requires passing a written test and having minimum levels of insurance.

Schools and programs

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Formal training in the carpentry trade is available in seminars, certificate programs, high-school programs, online classes, in the new construction, restoration, and preservation carpentry fields.[14] Sometimes these programs are called pre-apprenticeship training.

In the modern British construction industry, carpenters are trained through apprenticeship schemes where general certificates of secondary education (GCSE) in Mathematics, English, and Technology help but are not essential. However, this is deemed the preferred route, as young people can earn and gain field experience whilst training towards a nationally recognized qualification.

There are two main divisions of training: construction-carpentry and cabinetmaking. During pre-apprenticeship, trainees in each of these divisions spend 30 hours a week for 12 weeks in classrooms and indoor workshops learning mathematics, trade terminology, and skill in the use of hand and power tools. Construction-carpentry trainees also participate in calisthenics to prepare for the physical aspect of the work.

Upon completion of pre-apprenticeship, trainees who have passed the graded curriculum (taught by highly experienced journeyperson carpenters) are assigned to a local union and to union carpentry crews at work on construction sites or in cabinet shops as First Year Apprentices. Over the next four years, as they progress in status to Second Year, Third Year, and Fourth Year Apprentice, apprentices periodically return to the training facility every three months for a week of more detailed training in specific aspects of the trade.

In the United States, fewer than 5% of carpenters identify as female. A number of schools in the U.S. appeal to non-traditional tradespeople by offering carpentry classes for and taught by women, including Hammerstone: Carpentry for Women in Ithaca, NY, Yestermorrow in Waitsfield, VT and Oregon Tradeswomen in Portland, OR.

Apprenticeships and journeyperson

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Tradesmen in countries such as Germany and Australia are required to fulfill formal apprenticeships (usually three to four years) to work as professional carpenters. Upon graduation from the apprenticeship, they are known as journeyperson carpenters.

Up through the 19th and even the early 20th century, the journeyperson traveled to another region of the country to learn the building styles and techniques of that area before (usually) returning home. In modern times, journeypeople are not required to travel, and the term now refers to a level of proficiency and skill. Union carpenters in the United States, that is, members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, are required to pass a skills test to be granted official journeyperson status, but uncertified professional carpenters may also be known as journeypersons based on their skill level, years of experience, or simply because they support themselves in the trade and not due to any certification or formal woodworking education.

Professional status as a journeyperson carpenter in the United States may be obtained in a number of ways. Formal training is acquired in a four-year apprenticeship program administered by the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in which journeyperson status is obtained after successful completion of twelve weeks of pre-apprenticeship training, followed by four years of on-the-job field training working alongside journeyperson carpenters. The Timber Framers Guild also has a formal apprenticeship program for traditional timber framing. Training is also available in groups like the Kim Bồng woodworking village in Vietnam where apprentices live and work to learn woodworking and carpentry skills.

In Canada, each province sets its own standards for apprenticeship. The average length of time is four years and includes a minimum number of hours of both on-the-job training and technical instruction at a college or other institution. Depending on the number of hours of instruction an apprentice receives, they can earn a Certificate of Proficiency, making them a journeyperson, or a Certificate of Qualification, which allows them to practice a more limited amount of carpentry. Canadian carpenters also have the option of acquiring an additional Interprovincial Red Seal that allows them to practice anywhere in Canada. The Red Seal requires the completion of an apprenticeship and an additional examination.

Master carpenter

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After working as a journeyperson for a while, a carpenter may go on to study or test as a master carpenter. In some countries, such as Germany, Iceland and Japan, this is an arduous and expensive process, requiring extensive knowledge (including economic and legal knowledge) and skill to achieve master certification; these countries generally require master status for anyone employing and teaching apprentices in the craft. In others, like the United States, 'master carpenter' can be a loosely used term to describe any skilled carpenter.

Fully trained carpenters and joiners will often move into related trades such as shop fitting, scaffolding, bench joinery, maintenance and system installation.

Materials

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The Centre Pompidou-Metz museum under construction in Metz, France. The building possesses one of the most complex examples of carpentry built to date and is composed of 16 kilometers of glued laminated timber for a surface area of 8,000 m2.

Carpenters traditionally worked with natural wood which has been prepared by splitting (riving), hewing, or sawing with a pit saw or sawmill called lumber (American English) or timber (British English). Today natural and engineered lumber and many other building materials carpenters may use are typically prepared by others and delivered to the job site. In 2013 the carpenters union in America used the term carpenter for a catch-all position. Tasks performed by union carpenters include installing "...flooring, windows, doors, interior trim, cabinetry, solid surface, roofing, framing, siding, flooring, insulation, ...acoustical ceilings, computer-access flooring, metal framing, wall partitions, office furniture systems, and both custom or factory-produced materials, ...trim and molding,... ceiling treatments, ... exposed columns and beams, displays, mantels, staircases...metal studs, metal lath, and drywall..."[15]

Health and safety

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United States

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Carpentry is often hazardous work. Types of woodworking and carpentry hazards include: machine hazards, flying materials, tool projection, fire and explosion, electrocution, noise, vibration, dust, and chemicals. In the United States the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) tries to prevent illness, injury, and fire through regulations. However, self-employed workers are not covered by the OSHA act.[16] OSHA claims that "Since 1970, workplace fatalities have been reduced by more than 65 percent and occupational injury and illness rates have declined by 67 percent. At the same time, U.S. employment has almost doubled."[17] The leading cause of overall fatalities, called the "fatal four," are falls, followed by struck by object, electrocution, and caught-in/between. In general construction "employers must provide working conditions that are free of known dangers. Keep floors in work areas in a clean and, so far as possible, dry condition. Select and provide required personal protective equipment at no cost to workers. Train workers about job hazards in a language that they can understand."[18] Examples of how to prevent falls includes placing railings and toe-boards at any floor opening which cannot be well covered and elevated platforms and safety harness and lines, safety nets, stair railings, and handrails.

Safety is not just about the workers on the job site. Carpenters' work needs to meet the requirements in the Life Safety Code such as in stair building and building codes to promote long-term quality and safety for the building occupants.

Types of carpentry

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A team of carpenters assembling a Tarrant hut during World War I
  • Conservation carpenter works in architectural conservation, known in the U.S. as a "preservation" or "restoration"; a carpenter who works in historic preservation, maintaining structures as they were built or restoring them to that condition.
  • Cooper, a barrel maker.
  • Formwork carpenter creates the shuttering and falsework used in concrete construction, and reshores as necessary.
  • Framer is a carpenter who builds the skeletal structure or wooden framework of buildings, most often in the platform framing method. A framer who specializes in building with timbers and traditional joints rather than studs is known as a timber framer.
  • Log builder builds structures of stacked horizontal logs with limited joints.
  • Joiner (a traditional name now rare in North America), is one who does cabinetry, furniture making, fine woodworking, model building, instrument making, parquetry, joinery, or other carpentry where exact joints and minimal margins of error are important. Various types of joinery include:
    • Cabinetmaker is a carpenter who does fine and detailed work specializing in the making of cabinets made from wood, wardrobes, dressers, storage chests, and other furniture designed for storage.
    • Finish carpenter (North America), also trim carpenter, specializes in installing millwork ie; molding and trim, (such as door and window casings, mantels, crown mouldings, baseboards), engineered wood panels, wood flooring and other types of ornamental work such as turned or Carved objects. Finish carpenters pick up where framing ends off, including hanging doors and installing cabinets. Finish Carpenters are often referred to colloquially as "millworkers", but this title actually pertains to the creation of moldings on a mill.
    • Furniture maker is a carpenter who makes standalone furniture such as tables, and chairs.
    • Luthier is someone who makes or repairs stringed instruments. The word luthier comes from the French word for lute, "luth".
  • Set carpenter builds and dismantles temporary scenery and sets in film-making, television, and the theater.
  • Shipwright specializes in fabrication maintenance, repair techniques, and carpentry specific to vessels afloat. When assigned to a ship's crew would they would be known as a "Ship's Carpenter". Such a carpenter patrols the vessel's carpenter's walk to examine the hull for leaks.

Other

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  • Japanese carpentry, daiku is the simple term for carpenter, a Miya-daiku (temple carpenter) performs the work of both architect and builder of shrines and temples, and a sukiya-daiku works on teahouse construction and houses. Sashimono-shi build furniture and tateguya do interior finishing work.[19]
  • Green carpentry specializes in the use of environmentally friendly,[20] energy-efficient[21] and sustainable[22] sources of building materials for use in construction projects. They also practice building methods that require using less material and material that has the same structural soundness.[23]
  • Recycled (reclaimed, repurposed) carpentry is carpentry that uses scrap wood and parts of discarded or broken furniture to build new wood products.

See also

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  • Japanese carpentry – Distinctive woodworking style
  • Ship's carpenter – Ship crewman responsible for maintaining wooden structures
  • Traditional trades – Category of building trades
  • Woodworking – Process of making objects from wood
  • Worshipful Company of Carpenters – Livery company of the City of London

References

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  1. ^ Roza, Greg. A career as a . New York: Rosen Pub., 2011. 6. Print.
  2. ^ Vogt, Floyd, and Gaspar J. Lewis. Carpentry. 4th ed. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning, 2006.xvi Print.
  3. ^ "Carpenter | Careers in Construction". www.careersinconstruction.ca.
  4. ^ The American heritage dictionary of the English language Archived June 7, 2007, at the Wayback Machine - Etymology of the word "carpenter"
  5. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
  6. ^ "What's the Difference Between a Carpenter and a Joiner?" (30 April 2015). InternationalTimber.com. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
  7. ^ "Joiner vs Carpenter - What's the Difference?".
  8. ^ "Carpenter." Def. 1. Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) © Oxford University Press 2009
  9. ^ Whitney, William D., ed. "Carpenter." Def, 1. The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language vol. 1. New York. The Century Co. 1895. 830. Print.
  10. ^ Rybníček, Michal; Kočár, Petr; Muigg, Bernhard; Peška, Jaroslav; Sedláček, Radko; Tegel, Willy; KoláÃ…â„¢, Tomáš (2020). "World's oldest dendrochronologically dated archaeological wood construction". Journal of Archaeological Science. 115: 105082. Bibcode:2020JArSc.115j5082R. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2020.105082. S2CID 213707193.
  11. ^ Prostak, Sergio (24 December 2012). "German Archaeologists Discover World's Oldest Wooden Wells". sci-news.com.
  12. ^ Loveday, Amos John. The cut nail industry, 1776–1890: technology, cost accounting, and the upper Ohio Valley. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International, 1979. Print.
  13. ^ Jester, Thomas C.. Twentieth-century building materials: history and conservation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995. Print.
  14. ^ [1] Archived April 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ "United Brotherhood Of Carpenters". carpenters.org. Retrieved 10 April 2015.
  16. ^ "Workers' Rights". osha.gov. Retrieved 10 April 2015.
  17. ^ "Commonly Used Statistics". osha.gov. Retrieved 10 April 2015.
  18. ^ "Safety and Health Topics - Fall Protection". osha.gov. Retrieved 10 April 2015.
  19. ^ Lee Butler, "Patronage and the Building Arts in Tokugawa Japan", Early Modern Japan. Fall-Winter 2004 [2]
  20. ^ "Environmentally Friendly Building Materials". McMullen Carpenters And Joiners. 2009-04-10. Archived from the original on 2013-06-28. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
  21. ^ "A Green Home Begins with ENERGY STAR Blue" (PDF). Energystar. Retrieved 8 September 2012.
  22. ^ "Green Building Basics". Ciwmb.ca.gov. Archived from the original on 2009-12-10. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
  23. ^ "Defining Green-Collar Jobs" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2009-07-07. There is no consensus on how to define green-collar jobs. A very broad interpretation of green jobs would include all existing and new jobs that contribute to environmental quality through improved efficiencies, better resource management, and other technologies that successfully address the environmental challenges facing society. Probably the most concise, general definition is "well-paid, career-track jobs that contribute directly to preserving or enhancing environmental quality" (Apollo Alliance 2008, 3). This definition suggests that green-collar jobs directly contribute to improving environmental quality, but would not include low-wage jobs that provide little mobility. Most discussion of green-collar jobs does not refer to positions that require a college degree, but they typically do involve training beyond high school. Many of the positions are similar to skilled, blue-collar jobs, such as electricians, welders, carpenters, etc.

[1]

[edit]
  • Media related to Carpentry at Wikimedia Commons
  • Carpentry at Wikibooks
  • "Carpentry" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). 1911.
  • The Institute of Carpenters (England)
  • Carpenters entry in the Occupational Outlook Handbook of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor
  • Carpentry for Boys (1914). James Slough Zerbe, The New York Book Company
  1. ^ What Is Carpentry

 

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